April 22, 2013 I successfully defended my PhD in computer science, more specifically in the area of software security [fulltext pdf]. I thought I'd share some parts of the thesis in a more digestible format and allow myself to augment our results, comment, and have opinions, things you typically don't see in academic publications.
However, attacks against computer systems are not limited to intentionally malicious software. Benign software can contain vulnerabilities and such vulnerabilities can be exploited to make the benign software do malicious things. A successful exploit has traditionally been the same as an intrusion. But in the era of web application vulnerabilities that term is not used as often. Nevertheless, a successful cross-site scripting attack (XSS) can be seen as executing arbitrary code inside the web application. And arbitrary code execution in a web application may very well be of high impact if the application handles sensitive information (password fields, credit card numbers etc) or is authorized to do sensitive state changes on the server (money transfers, profile updates, message posting etc). I would therefore argue that XSS is an intrusion attack.
Vulnerabilities can be responsibly reported to the public by creating a so called CVE Identifier – a unique, common identifier for a publicly known information security vulnerability. Identifiers are created by CVE Numbering Authorities for acknowledged vulnerabilities. Larger software vendors typically handle identifiers for their own products. Some of these participating vendors are Apple, Oracle, Ubuntu Linux, Microsoft, Google, and IBM.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has a statistical database over reported software vulnerabilities with a publicly accessible search interface. Two specific types of vulnerabilities are of specific interest in the context of our research, namely buffer overflows and format string vulnerabilities in software written in the programming language C. The statistics for Buffer Errors and Format String Vulnerabilities are shown below.
Reported software vulnerabilities due to buffer errors have increased significantly since 2002. Their percentage of the total number of reported vulnerabilities has also increased from 1-4 % between 2002 and 2006 to 10-16 % between 2008 and 2012. These statistics are in stark contrast to the statistics from CERT that Wagner et al used to show that buffer overflows represented 50 % of all reported vulnerabilities in 1999 [pdf]. We have not investigated if there are significant differences in how the two statistics were produced. Still, up to 16 % of all reported vulnerabilities is a significant number.
The reported format string vulnerabilities peaked between 2007 and 2009 but have never reached 0.5 % of the total. Our experience is that format string vulnerabilities are less prevalent, easier to fix, and harder to exploit than buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Nevertheless format string vulnerabilities are still being used for exploitation such as the Corona iOS Jailbreak Tool.
Further things can be done in an even wider scope. Programming languages can be constructed with security primitives which allow programmers to express security properties of the system they are writing – so called security-typed languages, a part of language-based security [pdf]. Operating systems and deployment platforms can be hardened and secured both in construction and configuration.
Our research objectives have been on the Requirements and Implementation phases of Microsoft's SDL and on hardening of the runtime environment for software applications. Want to know what we found out? Stay tuned for upcoming posts where we dive into the details of our studies.
Let's start with my introductory chapter …
The cover.
``To put it quite bluntly: as long as there were no machines, programming was no problem at all; when we had a few weak computers, programming became a mild problem, and now we have gigantic computers, programming has become an equally gigantic problem. In this sense the electronic industry has not solved a single problem, it has only created them, it has created the problem of using its products.''
–Edsger W.Dijkstra, The Humble Programmer, 1972
Computer software products are among the most complex artifacts, if not the most complex artifacts mankind has created (see Dijkstra's quote above). Securing those artifacts against intelligent attackers who try to exploit flaws in software design and construct is a great challenge too.
Our research contributes to the field of software security. Software as an artifact meant to interact with its environment including humans. Security in the sense of withstanding active intrusion attempts against benign software.
Software Vulnerabilities
Software can be intentionally malicious such as viruses (programs that replicate and spread from one computer to another and cause harm to infected ones), trojans (malicious programs that masquerade as benign) and software containing logic bombs (malicious functions set off when specified conditions are met).However, attacks against computer systems are not limited to intentionally malicious software. Benign software can contain vulnerabilities and such vulnerabilities can be exploited to make the benign software do malicious things. A successful exploit has traditionally been the same as an intrusion. But in the era of web application vulnerabilities that term is not used as often. Nevertheless, a successful cross-site scripting attack (XSS) can be seen as executing arbitrary code inside the web application. And arbitrary code execution in a web application may very well be of high impact if the application handles sensitive information (password fields, credit card numbers etc) or is authorized to do sensitive state changes on the server (money transfers, profile updates, message posting etc). I would therefore argue that XSS is an intrusion attack.
Vulnerabilities can be responsibly reported to the public by creating a so called CVE Identifier – a unique, common identifier for a publicly known information security vulnerability. Identifiers are created by CVE Numbering Authorities for acknowledged vulnerabilities. Larger software vendors typically handle identifiers for their own products. Some of these participating vendors are Apple, Oracle, Ubuntu Linux, Microsoft, Google, and IBM.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has a statistical database over reported software vulnerabilities with a publicly accessible search interface. Two specific types of vulnerabilities are of specific interest in the context of our research, namely buffer overflows and format string vulnerabilities in software written in the programming language C. The statistics for Buffer Errors and Format String Vulnerabilities are shown below.
The reported format string vulnerabilities peaked between 2007 and 2009 but have never reached 0.5 % of the total. Our experience is that format string vulnerabilities are less prevalent, easier to fix, and harder to exploit than buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Nevertheless format string vulnerabilities are still being used for exploitation such as the Corona iOS Jailbreak Tool.
Avoiding Software Intrusions
Intrusion attempts or attacks are made by malicious users or attackers against victims. A victim can be either a machine holding valuable assets or another human computer user. Securing software against intrusions calls for anti-intrusion techniques as defined by Halme and Bauer. We have taken the liberty of adapting and reproducing Halme and Bauer's figure showing anti-intrusion approaches, see below.- Preempt – strike offensively against likely threat agents prior to an intrusion attempt. May affect innocents.
- Prevent – severely handicap the likelihood of a particular intrusion’s success.
- Deter – increase the necessary effort for an intrusion to succeed, increase the risk associated with an attempt, and/or devalue the perceived gain that would come with success.
- Deflect – leads an intruder to believe that he or she has succeeded in an intrusion attempt, whereas in fact the intrusion was redirected to where harm is minimized.
- Detect – discriminate intrusion attempts and intrusion preparation from normal activity and alert the operations. Detection can also be done in a post mortem analysis.
- Actively countermeasure – counter an intrusion as it is being attempted.
Avoiding the Vulnerabilities
There are many ways to achieve more secure software, i.e. avoiding to have vulnerabilities. Microsoft's Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) defines seven phases where security enhancing activities and technologies apply:- Training
- Requirements
- Design
- Implementation
- Verification
- Release
- Response
Further things can be done in an even wider scope. Programming languages can be constructed with security primitives which allow programmers to express security properties of the system they are writing – so called security-typed languages, a part of language-based security [pdf]. Operating systems and deployment platforms can be hardened and secured both in construction and configuration.
Our research objectives have been on the Requirements and Implementation phases of Microsoft's SDL and on hardening of the runtime environment for software applications. Want to know what we found out? Stay tuned for upcoming posts where we dive into the details of our studies.
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